War for Colonial Dominion
By Charles Morris
CHAPTERS IN UNITED STATES HISTORY.* NO. 4.
War for Colonial Dominion.
Rivalry of England and France—Wars in America—The Struggle for the Valley of the Ohio—Braddock's Defeat—The Taking of Fort Duquesne—Battle of Lake George—The Fort William Henry Massacre—The Assault on Quebec—The Stratagem and Triumph of Wolfe—Canada Ceded to England. THE middle of the eighteenth century found North America in the possession of three European nations,—Spain in the south, England in the center, and France in the north. Of these three claimants, two were inveterately hostile. There was little trouble between the Spaniards and their English neighbors, but for many years the English and French colonists were at war. Between the western frontier of the English colonies—one or two hundred miles back from the Atlantic coast—and the Mississippi River, held by the French, lay a vast domain, the valley of the Ohio, to which both parties laid claim, and for the possession of which war was inevitable. Before the date mentioned, there had been three outbreaks of hostility between these rival powers. These were known in this country as King William's War (1689–1697), Queen Anne's War (1702–1713), and King George's War (1744–1748). But none of these, tho they gave rise to much loss and suffering in America, were of American origin. They were merely reflections on this side of the ocean of wars in Europe between England and France. Yet, tho the colonists had no concern with the questions at issue, they sprang like loosened dogs at each other's throats, and the savage allies of France were set loose, with knife and tomahawk, on the English settlements. No result beyond the misery involved came to America from these wars. They were useless exhibitions of human ferocity. But the war that broke out in 1754, known in history as the French and Indian War, was widely different in its cause and its results. It had its origin in America, not in Europe. Instead of arising from a European war, it gave rise to one. And its results were vitally important to America, for it deprived France of all her possessions on this continent, and gave England undisputed sway from Florida to the Arctic seas, and from the Atlantic to the Mississippi. It can not be held as part of the history of the United States as an independent nation, yet it had an important mission in clearing the ground for the great struggle which gave birth to the United States. This being the case, a brief review of its general course will be here in place.8 About the middle of the century both claimants seemed to wake up to the great value of the Ohio country, and the desirability of taking possession of this rich domain. The French built forts, and launched a fleet of canoes on affluents of the Ohio, and the governor of Virginia sent Major George Washington as an envoy to warn them off the disputed lands. The French refused to retire. The English maintained their claim. War was the quick result. A party was sent from Virginia to build a fort at the point which Washington had selected as an admirable spot for the purpose, where the Alleghany and Monongahela rivers unite to form the Ohio, and where the city of Pittsburg now stands. But they had only fairly begun when the French came in much greater force down the Alleghany, drove the builders away, and erected a fort at the same locality. This they named Fort Duquesne. While this was taking place, a regiment of Virginia militia was marching towards that place. Its colonel died on the route, and Major Washington, the second in rank, took command. On his march he met with a party of French skulking in the vicinity of his camp, apparently with hostile intent, fired upon them, and killed their commander. This was the first shot in a long and hotly-contested war, resulting in Washington's defeat. He was forced to capitulate, and marched his small force back to Virginia, where he gained great credit for his skill and able management. The contest thus started, if left to the colonists alone, could hardly have failed to terminate soon in favor of the English, since they outnumbered their opponents fifteen to one. There were at that time more than a million people in the English colonies. There were much less than a hundred thousand in the French. But the flames of war quickly extended across the seas. In 1755 both sides sent armies over to take part in the war. In 1756 war between England and France was formally declared, and the contest started in America was continued on European soil. General Braddock, an officer experienced in civilized warfare, but ignorant as a child of how to deal with the savages of the American forests, crossed to Virginia with a strong body of British regulars, and marched at the head of these and a force of Virginia militia against Fort Duquesne and its defenders. He was to discover by sad experience that he had new lessons to learn in the art of war. He had reached a point about eight miles distant from the fort when, while passing through a ravine, a hot fire was poured upon his troops from the forest on each side. He had disdainfully rejected Washington's advice to send a scouting party in advance, and in consequence had blindly fallen into an ambush of French and Indians. The British regulars, while seeing no enemy, found themselves swept down by a galling fire from behind bushes and trees, into which they fired uselessly in reply. The blunder which Braddock had made was followed by a worse one. He resisted Washington's suggestion to let his men take to the woods and fight the enemy in their own way. There was but one way to conduct a battle, in his opinion, and he kept the poor fellows rigidly in their ranks, helpless targets to the fire of their foes. For some three hours they were thus held together, victims to discipline and obstinacy, falling in scores before the unseen enemy. Even the colonists, who took to the trees and fought the Indians in their own fashion, were sharply rebuked by Braddock, who called them cowards, and bade them to "come out into the open field like Englishmen." There could be but one end to such madness. Braddock, after having four horses shot under him, fell mortally wounded, and his men broke and fled in panic flight. Of all his officers, Washington showed the most courage and judgment. He had two horses shot under him, and his clothes pierced by bullets, but escaped without a wound. Only his courage and coolness checked a murderous pursuit, and saved the army from destruction. Years afterwards he was told by an old Indian chief that he had fired fifteen times at him during the fight without once hitting him. He desisted at last, thinking that the daring white man bore a charmed life. The result of this defeat was disastrous to the frontier settlements. For three years they were exposed to the raids of the Indians, and Washington was kept busy fighting in their defense. At length, in 1758, a new army marched against Fort Duquesne. Its commander, General Forbes, spent so much time in cutting a road through the forest that winter was at hand when he was still fifty miles from the fort. He was about to give up the attempt, when Washington urged a rapid forward movement. Leading the advance guard, the young Virginian took care that there should be no more Indian surprises, and was quickly master of the fort, the French flying at his approach. George Washington was thus the one hero of the war in this region. He renamed the stronghold Fort Pitt, after the great English statesman. From this the city, which afterwards rose on its site, received the name of Pittsburg. Aside from the capture of Fort Duquesne, the most important event of the war took place on the historic waterway of Lake Champlain and Lake George, and the waters of the St. Lawrence. The French had a stronghold at Crown Point, on the western side of Lake Champlain. The nearest English stronghold was Fort Edward, on the headwaters of the Hudson, the scene of many of Putnam's adventures, as given in our last chapter. In 1756 Sir William Johnson, a prominent landholder of the Mohawk region of New York, set out with a strong force of regulars and militia to attack Crown Point. The French, under Dieskau, met him near the head of Lake George. A fierce battle ensued, in which the English were at first driven back. But fortunately Johnson, who was no soldier, retired early to his tent with a slight wound. General Lyman, at the head of the colonial troops, now took command, and drove back the French in complete defeat. Dieskau was severely wounded, and in the pursuit was approached by a soldier, as he reclined against a stump. He felt in his pocket for his watch to give his enemy, when the soldier, thinking he was feeling for his pistol, shot him. In reward for this victory Johnson was made a baronet and given $25,000. Lyman, to whom the victory was really due, had only his own satisfaction for reward. The victory was useless. Johnson failed to proceed against Crown Point. All he did was to build a fort at the head of the lake, which he named Fort William Henry. In return the French built Fort Ticonderoga on the neck of land between Lakes George and Champlain. Two years afterward the English fort was the scene of a terrible event, the story of which Cooper has made familiar to most readers in his "Last of the Mohicans." The Marquis de Montcalm, at the head of a strong force of French and Indians, swept down the lakes and attacked Fort William Henry, whose commander was forced to capitulate. The English, who had been guaranteed a safe escort to Fort Edward, fourteen miles below, marched unarmed from the fort. But they had but fairly left the gates when the Indians fell upon them with knife and tomahawk, and a fearful massacre ensued, the French offering no protection, or failing to check their savage allies. In addition to the slain, many were carried off as prisoners, and only a miserable fraction of the force escaped. What followed may be briefly told. In 1758 a strong British army attacked Fort Ticonderoga, but suffered a crushing defeat. In 1759 the tide turned in favor of the English. Fort Ticonderoga, Crown Point, and Niagara were taken, and the French finally driven from English soil. Then the war was carried into French territory, and a vigorous assault made on Quebec. This duty was entrusted to General Wolfe, a young soldier who had shown such energy and daring in the siege of Louisbourg (a French stronghold on Cape Breton Island, which the English had taken), that he was selected for this difficult task.9 With a large fleet of 8,000 soldiers, Wolfe sailed up the St. Lawrence and anchored in front of Quebec. Within that stronghold lay Montcalm with 7,000 men. The fortress, seated on a high cliff, and well supplied with cannon, long defied the efforts of its foes. All summer Wolfe bombarded it in vain, and at length began to despair. Montcalm was incessantly vigilant. He kept horses ready, that he might hasten at any moment to any point assailed, and it is said that during the siege he did not once take off his clothes. At only one point was Quebec open to a land assault. This was upon the northwest side, and there the precipice was so steep as to be deemed inaccessible. But a close observation of this cliff revealed to Wolfe a narrow path winding up among the rocks to the top, and he determined to make a desperate effort to lead his army up this slender track. It was the last resort, and upon it depended the question of victory or defeat. On the 12th of September, to deceive the enemy, he took his men several miles up the river. Then at nightfall he dropped down silently with the ebb-tide, until opposite the selected place. Wolfe was the first to land. The shore was lined with French sentinels. One near the selected point challenged on hearing the sound. He was answered by a captain who spoke French, and secured before he could give an alarm. The landing was made in a little bay, now known as Wolfe's Cove. Deep silence was preserved. Twenty-four volunteers climbed the steep path, and surprised and dispersed the guard at the summit. The others followed rapidly, aiding their steps by grasping the bushes along the path. On the morning of the 13th, a British force of 5,000 men stood on the Plains of Abraham, the platform upon which the upper city was built. Montcalm could scarcely believe the tale that was brought to his ears. When convinced of its truth, he led his army in haste from the city against the foe. A desperate battle ensued. With the English there was no retreat. They must win or all was lost. They reserved their fire until the French were near, and then poured in rapid volleys. The French wavered. Wolfe now ordered a bayonet charge, and placed himself at its head. He was twice struck by balls. A third shot gave him a mortal wound. As he was borne to the rear, he heard the cry: "The men—they run!" "Who run?" he asked. "The French." "Now God be praised, I die in peace!" he exclaimed. Montcalm, too, was mortally wounded. On being told that he might die, he answered, "Thank God, I shall not live to see the surrender of Quebec." Five days afterwards the city fell into English hands. The fall of Quebec was the fall of Canada. The next year the French tried to recapture it, but in vain. Montreal was soon after taken, and the war in America was at an end. Peace was made in Europe in 1763. With it ceased the French dominion in America. France gave up to England all of her territory east of the Mississippi. Spain ceded Florida to England.