“We live,” said a member of Parliament very recently, “in days of unrest and rumor.” These words truly describe the situation in Great Britain at the present time. To be sure, the multitude now, as almost always, is more or less indifferent, improvident, and careless; but thoughtful people view the future with grave apprehension. The present government, altho entering upon its office with a very large majority, has recently lost several by-elections, and has become exceedingly unpopular with Nonconformists by reason of the Education Bill, which it forced through Parliament by free application of the closure. Prominent members of the Nonconformist body are declaring that they will offer passive resistance by refusing to pay the education rate. This will lay them open to the visit of a bailiff, who will sell by auction a portion of their furniture sufficient to cover the sum.
The Education Act—What It Means.
A great public meeting was held in Hornsey, North London, last Thursday evening. Rev. R. J. Campbell, successor of Dr. Parker, in the City Temple, and at the present moment probably the most popular Nonconformist preacher in the kingdom, giving the principal address. He pointed out that the fight against the Education Act was a struggle for the very life and existence of Nonconformity. He should refuse voluntarily to pay the rate because the act spelled educational inefficiency. On a higher ground he would refuse because the act “compels me to support a form of religion in which I do not believe, and against which Nonconformity is a standing protest.” The war-cry would be, “We will pay the people’s rate, but not the parson’s rate,” i. e., they are willing to pay a proper school tax, but not to pay a Church of England parson to teach their children his own peculiar religious views.
What would be the general character of the religious instruction given the school children under the guidance of the clergy, may be discerned without difficulty. Ritualists form the dominant section of the State school. A recent publication of theirs, entitled, “A Catechism for Catholics in England,” contains the following, among other interesting things: “Are Protestant Dissenters in schism?—Protestant Dissenters are in schism, and their ministers not being in the apostolic succession, have no authority to teach, and can not administer the sacraments.” Among the things to be confessed are attending services at Nonconformist chapels and going to fortune tellers, both equally sinful according to this publication of a supposedly Protestant denomination. In point of fact it can hardly be distinguished from a Roman Catholic catechism. Such is the teaching which, under the new Education Act, is to be paid for entirely out of public money.
Drifting Romeward—Prayer for the Dead.
Another straw showing the direction of the popular current, is announcement of the holding of a special service in St. Paul’s Cathedral on May 6, for the soldiers who died in the South African war. One feature of the service, according to the Record, will be “a celebration of Holy Communion for the repose of the souls,” of these soldiers. This is denied by some officials, but there is no denial as to the service including public prayers for the dead, and a ritual almost exactly modeled on that of the Roman Catholic Church. The Army Guild, justifying the proposed service in the Sentry, says: “We are going to plead the sacrifice of Christ for them [the deceased soldiers]. We do not look upon our comrades, much less our brethren who died doing their duty most nobly to their king and country, as past praying for.”
It has been pointed out that this service, if carried out, will be the first of the kind held in a national English cathedral since the Reformation. An anonymous circular has been scattered all over London calling on Protestants to assemble in thousands and make it “impossible to hold this illegal service for the dead.” It is not unlikely that there will be noisy demonstrations, but the authorities thus far show no signs of yielding.
Effort to Change the King’s Oath.
It is announced that another effort will be made in the present session of Parliament to abolish the king’s declaration oath, the wording of which is so offensive alike to Catholics and Ritualists. The Duke of Norfolk, a most prominent and influential Roman Catholic, is to submit a petition in the House of Lords, signed by members of the faithful. Some readers of the Signs will remember the huge mass meeting held something over a year ago in the Royal Albert Hall to protest against any change in the king’s oath. Judging from general appearances, the Ritualistic cause has gained much in influence since then, and it is bound to do so. The English people have given up their Bible, and they are supplying its place with forms and ceremonies. It is a most significant fact that, as a general rule, the churches where Ritualistic services are conducted, have the largest attendances. This naturally has some influence with the preachers.
And yet, the people, many of them at least, are really longing for the pure, simple Gospel. What is needed is a new reformation, preached in the power of the Holy Ghost, and lived.
London, April 17. M. ELLSWORTH OLSEN.
IMPERIALISM—ITS FRUITS.
IN 1892 America was decidedly facing Romeward, going in the way of that earlier republic. Of course the seed-sowing had been in progress for years before; but in that year, in the matter of religious legislation in connection with the World’s Fair, and other official acts, America, like the change of face upon her half and quarter-dollar silver coins, turned toward the East and became Roman instead of American. Since that time imperialistic sentiment in religion and in civil government has grown apace. The principles which made this government great have been trampled underfoot, and peoples, fighting for freedom, thousands of leagues away, have been subjugated and denied the very rights which, asserted and maintained, separated America from the Old World, made her a free land, and lifted the world from medieval tyranny.
The fruits of American imperialism may be seen in her speculation in the Philippines, undertaken and maintained for greed, not principle’s sake. The Philippine Islands have cost the United States 5,000 lives of soldiers, besides the wounded and helpless wrecks of the war; $300,000,000 in treasure, to say nothing about the pensions. Greed has hoped for large returns, but the last fiscal year’s exports to the islands from this country amounted to only $5,257,000, and this mostly for the soldiers, and imports from the islands $6,612,000. One good day in New York equals a year of the Philippines. Plague has followed war and famine, and $3,000,000 has been appropriated by Congress for that. War still goes on, and it is reported that General Chaffee says that “the military force should not be reduced below the 30,000 line for at least five years;” and that, in his opinion, “at least that number of men will be required for a much longer time, perhaps for a quarter of a century.” Five hundred men are reported in asylums as a result of the experiment. Have the weak no rights the powerful are bound to respect? Is not the logic of events demonstrating on one side at least that, as President Schurman said, “any decent kind of government of Filipinos by Filipinos is better than the best possible government of Filipinos by Americans?” And the above, summarized from a New York paper, is a part of the fruit of American imperialism in the Philippines. The principles operative there will soon be operative at home; and then, according to inevitable logic and the prophetic Word, ruin.
ROME'S PURPOSE.
By G.
It should be kept before the people of this country that Rome’s purpose, as expressed by the pope, is that “what the church has done for others she will now do for the United States.” Therefore it is well to remind the people of the United States that in Spain, an ideal Catholic country, no Protestant church is allowed to front on a public street; nor can there be any sign placed on a public street directing the people to a Protestant church in the interior of a block. The law there is designed to force Protestantism into obscurity. In face of the declared purpose of Rome, as quoted above, the catering of Protestants to Roman institutions and Roman dignitaries would be a deep mystery—an unexplainable mystery—but for the light of prophecy. The inspired forecast of the restoration of the Papacy to power is followed by the declaration that “all the world wondered after the beast;” and that “power was given him over all kindreds, and tongues, and nations.” While the National Reformers are eliciting the efforts of the Protestant churches to unseat Senator Smoot because he is a Mormon, they seem to be blind to the far greater danger to the people that is embraced in papal intrigue for government control. They are also blind to the fact that in their strenuous efforts to secure enforced Sunday observance, they are encouraging the papal aggression by enforcing its “mark” upon the people. While the lesser evil is receiving the bulk of attention, the door is being widely opened for the Papacy to quietly step in and take possession of the government. When this dire calamity shall have been ushered in upon us, when Rome shall be in position, through Protestant assistance, to do for the United States as she has done for other countries, upon whom will the greater responsibility lie? G.
MORE EFFORT TO DESTROY THE WORD OF GOD.
By G.
THAT the adversary is wroth because the Scriptures of truth are being so widely circulated is evident by the persistent efforts of “learned” men to infuse doubt in the minds of the people. The New York Examiner (Baptist) calls attention to the fact that “a recent writer in one of our theological quarterlies seeks to bring the Epistle to the Romans into special discredit.” This critic is credited with a tirade against the inspired epistle which we would not dare to quote, alleging that Jewish and Christian literature of that time abounds in such letters. To his unwise assertions, however, the Examiner aptly replies:—
The various accusations made against what we may still call Paul’s letter to the Romans by this professor in an American university are so wild and violent and absurd that they may be left to refute themselves. But the assertion that early Christian literature really “abounds in such works,” greatly interests us. If there are even a few such writings in hiding somewhere, as the letter to the Romans, this man can gain eternal renown by bringing them to light. The Christian world, in their joy and gratitude over the recovered treasures will readily forget the professor’s own absurd and illogical essay.
When theological quarterlies and professors in American universities can devote their energies to the work of traducing and discrediting the Gospel of salvation, what becomes of the theory that the world is growing better through its much lauded educational institutions? Again we are in a time when One who was educated by the Spirit rather than in the great schools would be reckoned as not being learned, were He once more to appear as a man among men. Nevertheless, “the fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom,” and he who would be “wise unto salvation” must “search the Scriptures” that are “given by inspiration of God.” Notwithstanding the gibes of the learned critics, “the Word of the Lord endureth forever.” The Epistle to the Romans contains the Gospel of Jesus Christ in very emphatic terms, hence the desire of the enemy of salvation to have it set aside by those whom the people are wont to regard as competent teachers. But “the wisdom of men is foolishness with God.” Christ recorded a special petition for those who should believe on Him through the word of His apostles. John 17: 20. G.
In the Orient
In the Orient.—The air has been full of rumors during the week in regard to Russia’s intentions in Manchuria. It is evident that Russia was somewhat surprised at the seriousness with which America viewed her actions in North China, and the indications are now that Russia will hold back her program until the time for its accomplishment is more opportune. Japan seemed to be ready, in case she could be assured of foreign support, to oppose Russia with force in Manchuria. There was no intimation on the part of Washington officials that America stood ready to oppose Russia by force of arms, yet it is said that the czar’s advisers feared that America’s attitude might lead other nations to use force. No one dreams that Russia has abandoned her purpose. She has merely postponed the day of carrying it out. The reports now indicate that it is Russia’s intention to absorb Mongolia as well as Manchuria, and one of the demands in the general demand that was made by Russia upon China was that there should be no change in the administration of Mongolia. This certainly indicates her designs in that direction. Russia has now withdrawn her troops from the capital of Manchuria, but the troops remain in the province, an army of 50,000, according to repeated reports. It is reported that instead of Russia evacuating Manchuria, large numbers of soldiers in civilian clothes are entering that province. England is strengthening her navy in Asiatic waters, altho it is not believed that she would use force against Russia in the Manchurian matter. The Russian minister of war has gone to Manchuria. China, on advice of some of the other nations, has finally refused to grant the Russian demands; but even China must know that this means little to Russia. The partition of China among the western powers seems to be the general conclusion of thinking men.
SPLENDID COUNSEL TO SUNDAY-LAW ADVOCATES.
This is what the House of Representatives of the United States said in 1880:—
“If the Almighty has set apart the first day of the week as a time which man is bound to keep holy and devote exclusively to His worship, would it not be more congenial to the precepts of Christians to appeal exclusively to the great Lawgiver of the universe to aid them in making men better—in correcting their practices, by purifying their hearts? Government will protect them in their efforts. When they shall have so instructed the public minds, and awakened the conscience of individuals, as to make them believe that it is a violation of God’s law to carry mail, open post-offices, or receive letters on Sunday, the evil of which they complain will cease of itself, without any exertion of the strong arm of civil power.
“When man undertakes to become God’s avenger, he becomes a demon. Driven by the frenzy of a religious zeal, he loses every gentle feeling, forgets the most sacred precepts of his creed, and becomes ferocious and unrelenting.”
Hardly an Exoneration.
By G.
A correction that is rather an extension of the charge, is noted in the Sacramento Record-Union as follows:—
The declaration by the Rev. S. G. Adams, at a session of the Sacramento Women's Christian Temperance Union, that fashionable women of Sacramento are too much addicted to liquor drinking—that the habit is on the increase, has aroused the indignation of Mrs. William Beckman, who declares that the minister is mistaken; that the punch used at receptions in this city usually has no more wine than is necessary to make the potation palatable. “At any rate,” the lady declares, “the ladies of Sacramento do not smoke cigarettes at their social functions, as the ladies of the San Francisco 400 do.”
That somebody else does worse is not a clear vindication; it would not be ground for acquittal in an ordinary court. And in the infallible court of Heaven each case must stand on its own merit—or demerit. The “deeds done in the body” are “judged by the law,” and not by the conduct of others. “The soul that sinneth, it shall die.” The only vindication is found in the exercise of faith in Him who never violated the law, whose merit is accepted in behalf of all who accept Him as a Redeemer. It is no longer a secret that the strong-drink habit is growing among women, and it is equally true that too many men are inclined to make this fact a ground of apology for their own indulgence. But it is no excuse. There is but one example that may be safely followed, and that is the example of the perfect One. His command is, “Follow thou Me.”
G.
Anti-Mormon
A society called the National Anti-Mormon Missionary Association has been incorporated under the laws of Ohio. Of its purpose the general secretary, John T. Bridwell, of McArthur, Ohio, says:—
The need of this work is emphasized by the Josephite effort to clear Joseph Smith, the Mormon prophet, of the crime of polygamy. In the Arena, and more recently in the North American Review, Joseph Smith, son of the prophet, has presented the Josephite plea for acquittal. The Mormon prophet was a polygamist. The effort to clear him is a scheme to rehabilitate Mormonism before this generation and pave the way to a successful evangelistic crusade. The Josephites have carried their work so far as to demand the “correction” of school histories that tell the truth about Joseph. In some instances their demands have been complied with.
Macedonian Disturbances at Salonica
Macedonian sympathizers at Salonica, Turkey, wrecked the Ottoman Bank there on April 30, and attacked the post-office and other buildings. A panic ensued in which many were killed and injured. The latest report puts the number of killed at 300. The French steamer Guadalquiver was wrecked by a Bulgarian bomb at Salonica on April 28, and a bomb was exploded at the railway station, damaging a train. Eighteen Bulgarians were killed and a number taken prisoners at Nevrokop by the Turks, who also annihilated a band of 100 insurgents at Djumabala. In a battle between Turks and insurgents at Logodasch, on May 3, the Turks were defeated with a loss of 200 men and 6 officers. It is reported that Turkey will send an ultimatum to Bulgaria because of the help given the insurgents by the Bulgarians. Three Austrian and six Italian warships have arrived at Salonica, and feeling there is running high. The Turks are said to be holding meetings and planning for a general massacre of the Christians. A state of siege has been proclaimed in Salonica. The insurgents are planning to create disturbances until the nations shall become involved in the difficulty, believing that a European war is preferable to the present conditions there under the rule of the sultan.
Trust Operations.
A company composed of stock raisers was recently incorporated to wage war on the great beef trust. Twenty-five million dollars has been subscribed for stock in the new concern, which proposes to build a chain of packing houses across the West. The company will also do all in its power to prevent the merger of packing companies which was recently proposed by the beef trust, and which was to have been capitalized at $500,000,000. The beef trust has been enjoined by the courts from carrying out its illegal proposition, and an effort will be made by the beef trust to accomplish practically the same thing in another way. The government has won its case against the Northern Securities Company, that is, the proposed combination between the Great Northern and the Northern Pacific Railway Companies. The decision was handed down by Judge Thayer in the United States Circuit Court of Appeals at St. Louis, on April 9. The decision declares this $400,000,000 railway trust an illegal corporation in restraint of trade, and the parties to the merger are restrained from voting the stock of the companies. The court orders that the stock be returned to its former owners. An appeal will be taken to the Supreme Court, but as all four of the judges who heard the case are in harmony in the decision, it is not believed that the decision will be reversed. The leaders in the companies concerned are now planning to accomplish their purpose in an indirect way. A number of other railway companies were planning mergers, and it is thought this decision will retard the movement. It will not, however, retard the growth of the combine spirit, and the companies involved will be continually seeking some new way to override the law and accomplish their object.
In the Labor World
In the Labor World.—On the first day of May there were many strikes in various parts of the East. A general strike had been called in the building trades in a number of the large cities, but the trouble was less extensive than it was feared it would be. However, many thousands of laborers struck. In New York City 30,000 Italian excavators quit work on the new subway. The strike practically put an end to the excavations on the subway and also on buildings in course of construction. In many cases the demands of the laborers had been met so that threatened strikes were averted. In Chicago, 2,500 laundry men went on strike. In Boston the demands of some 15,000 laborers were granted. There was a strike of cooks and waiters in practically all the restaurants of Omaha on that date, and 7,000 men in the building trades in Philadelphia refused to return to work until their demands were complied with. In view of the continual demands made by the railway men of Chicago upon their employers, the managers of the various railways there have held a meeting and decided that they will co-operate to resist further demands. They say that they have reached the limit in concessions to the men. The street railway strike in Los Angeles has failed of its purpose. About 6,500 men and women have been thrown out of employment in the Deering Harvester Company's factories owing to a strike in the metal-workers' department. The plant has shut down, and this stops the manufacture of about one-half the binding twine used in the harvesters of the country.
Visiting Rulers
King Edward is still the guest of the French nation, and is receiving the warmest possible welcome both from officials and from the people generally—so remarkable is the change of sentiment which has taken place within the last two years. King Edward had hardly left the city of Rome when Kaiser Wilhelm paid a visit to that city. He was received enthusiastically by the Italian people and King Victor Emmanuel, and then paid a prompt visit to the Vatican. This visit coming immediately on the heels of King Edward's visit, has created considerable comment. The emperor is desirous of retaining the favor of the pope, in order that he may have the support of the Centrist (Catholic) party in the Reichstag. In making this visit the emperor, in deference to the pope's feelings, went to the Vatican direct from the German embassy instead of from the government buildings of the Italian capital as he had previously done and as King Edward did in making his call at the Vatican. The pope was greatly pleased with Emperor William's course in this respect, as it was a tacit recognition of the pope as a sovereign. Whether Emperor William's visit was for the purpose of forming a new triple alliance or of preventing any advantage coming to England from the king's visit, is a matter of uncertainty.
A Terrible Calamity.
An utterly unforeseen catastrophe occurred at the little mining town of Frank, North West Territory, early on the morning of April 29, when a part of the top of Turtle Mountain shook itself loose and came down in a fearful avalanche on the little village of Frank, burying houses and their inhabitants under tons of rock and earth. Some reports indicate that there was an explosion of gas in the side of the mountain which precipitated the avalanche, but other reports state that this was not the case, but that the mountain-side was either jarred loose by a slight earthquake or fell of its own weight. The latest report states that 64 are now known to have lost their lives. The inhabitants of the village who were not killed in the catastrophe have left or are about to leave the place. The loss to mine owners and property holders is placed at a million and a half.
Socialist Gains in Germany and Republican Gains in Spain
The Socialists are making great gains in Germany, and the Republicans have made wonderful gains in Spain, and consequently there is consternation in official circles in both these countries. It now seems probable that the Socialists will control one-quarter of the votes in the German Reichstag, while in the new Spanish Cortes there will be thirty-two Republicans in place of seventeen as in the last session. In Germany all other parties are working with all the power they control to check the Socialist advance, but seem comparatively powerless. It is felt that the consternation at the Socialist gains in Germany has had something to do with the emperor's latest visit to the pope. The marked deference shown the pope on this occasion will make the Centrist (Catholic) party in Germany stronger for the emperor.
Closing French Monasteries Sparks Strife
Scenes of strife continue in France in connection with the closing of the monasteries of those Catholic orders which the government has ordered closed. The Catholic peasants are in sympathy with the priests and nuns, and the local officials have not been able to carry out the decree of the government without the support of the military. At Marseilles, La Roche-sur-Yon, Nantes, Landerneau, Annecy, and Versailles, force had to be used by the soldiers in closing the establishments of the orders, and at some of these places conflicts occurred between the people and the military.
British Expedition Against the Mad Mullah
In Somaliland.—The British expedition against the Mad Mullah will probably be discontinued. The serious loss encountered in the recent campaign has made the British Government fearful of disapproval on the part of the British public. The fanatical leader of the desert tribes has a force variously estimated at from 50,000 to 100,000 men, and has all the watering places in the desert in his possession. It is believed that to annihilate this force would require an expedition so expensive that the British public would not support the government in the undertaking.
Mormon Missionaries Facing Deportation
Mormon missionaries in Prussia and Mecklenburg are under the ban of the government, and orders have been given for their deportation. The missionaries have appealed to the government of the United States for protection. The State of Bavaria some time ago decreed the expulsion of the Mormon missionaries, and they left quietly. The State of Saxony is also planning for the expulsion of Mormon missionaries. In the meantime the United States minister to Germany has taken up the matter, and the outcome is in doubt.
Killing Frost Destroys Fruit Crops
A killing frost settled down over the Middle West on the night of April 30, destroying, it is asserted, millions of dollars’ worth of fruit. The fruit regions of Michigan, Indiana, and Illinois seem to have suffered most, tho the damage extends from the Lakes to Northern Texas and Oklahoma, and from the Rockies to the Atlantic.
Kischeneff Riots Death Toll Exceeds 300
The anti-Jewish riots which occurred at Kischeneff, capital of Bessarabia, Russia, reported last week to have resulted in the death of 25 persons and the injuring of 27, are now said to have resulted in the death of over 300 persons.
SOCIETY
By Mary Wood-Allen
BY MARY WOOD-ALLEN, M. D.
Love.
LOVE is a word of transcendent meaning. God is love. All feeling that is worthy of the name of love must then be divine, and to speak of it flippantly, or with vulgar jest, is to profane the name of the Most High. As Emerson says, “Love, which is the essence of God, is not for levity, but for the total worth of man.” When we truly love we can say with Longfellow, “There is nothing holier in this life of ours than the first consciousness of love.”
Sad indeed, is it then that we have so desecrated this holy feeling by thoughts which bring the “knowing” smile or suggestive word! And, alas, too, that so much of that which poses for love is merely selfishness. The only essence of true love is self-forgetfulness. “Love seeketh not her own.” By this test may we try the coin of love and prove it to be alloy or pure gold.
Young man, you think you love this young woman and desire her for your life companion. Examine your own heart. What is it you love in her? You admire the bright eye, the rosy cheek, the graceful form, the charming manner. But admiration is not love, and will flee as these charms pass away. You are thrilled by her glance and plunged into an ecstasy by her touch. But thrills and ecstasies are not love, and with constant companionship may come satiety and indifference. What are you thinking of when you think of your future life together? Of what she can give to you? Do you picture the comfort she will create in your home, the care she will bestow on you, the ministrations she will give you? This is but self-love—loving yourself through her. If you truly love her you will think of what you can do for her, of the service you can render her, of the self-denial you can practise for her.
If you love truly and the bright eyes grow dim you would rejoice in being eyes for her. If the deft hands and eager feet should become helpless you would joy in being hands and feet for her. Even if the light of reason should fade from the bright eye true love would not die, but would spend itself in watchful protecting ministrations, counting no labor too wearisome, no sacrifice too great. “Love suffereth long and is kind. Love never faileth.” By these tests may you know that you truly love.
And you, gay-hearted girl, of what are you dreaming when you say you love? Are you thinking of the freedom that marriage will bring, of the protection, the financial advantage, the home, the social position, the petting and waiting-on that will be yours. This is all love of self only, and has in it no touch of true love, the love that “seeketh not her own.” If you love him, and not yourself, you will be thinking of what you can do to make him happy; how you can please his taste, make his home comfortable, sympathise with his aspirations, stimulate his nobler ambitions, and grow daily into a nearer oneness with him. Do you say that I advise you to forget yourself in thinking of him? If he loves truly you will not have to think of yourself, for he will do that. You will be
“Two souls in sweet accord,
Each for each caring and each self unheard.
Bringing life's discords into perfect tune.”
But there can not be this perfect harmony without a true acquaintance. The foundation of all true love is friendship, the frank association without sentimentality which permits of an interchange of thought and feeling, an expression of opinions that insures a knowledge of each other's true selves, so that there may be no sudden disillusioning after the irrevocable vow has been spoken. In this honest comradeship sentimentality should not enter. There should be no personal familiarity, no endearments, no coquetries which blind the vision and disturb the mental poise.
It is unfortunate that the world surrounds all associations of men and women with an atmosphere of romance and passion that makes friendship next to impossible. Men and women are souls, and their association should be principally on the spiritual and intellectual plane in which there is honest comradeship. Then when a man and woman grow, through knowledge of each other into that deeper sympathy of love, there will be a dignity in the fact that is lacking when all associations are supposed to rest on the romantic basis. Then can the lover say with solemn earnestness, “Beloved, let us love one another; for love is of God.” “If we love one another, God dwelleth in us, and His love is perfected in us.”
THE AIR WE BREATHE.
By A. J. Sanderson, M.D.
WE neither see, hear, feel, taste, or smell the atmosphere which surrounds us; and yet we have more to do with its substance than with any other material element in the universe. In its pure state it is perfectly transparent and free from everything that appears to the physical senses.
The air surrounds the earth’s surface to the depth of several miles. The nearer the sea-level we come the more dense we find it. Hence its effect upon the human body is quite different at this level than at elevations of from six to seven thousand feet. The normal individual should be able to live at any habitable altitude; but such changes often have a marked effect on persons suffering from diseases of the heart or lungs.
In places where habitation is the most compact, the air becomes more and more contaminated, and it is never, in an inhabited country, perfectly pure. It is filled with floating particles of dust and filth, and often micro-organisms which may or may not become a cause of disease.
From a chemical standpoint the air is composed of oxygen and nitrogen in proportions of one-fifth oxygen to four-fifths nitrogen, and a very small percentage (.04) of carbonic acid gas. The first element is the active agent which makes the atmosphere useful to the body, while nitrogen is simply an inert element that dilutes the oxygen to its most practical density.
Oxygen is a very active gas. Its principal office is to support combustion and cause everything to burn readily which comes in contact with it. In pure oxygen nearly everything will burn; even iron will ignite when placed in a chamber containing pure oxygen. With an atmosphere of pure oxygen the whole earth’s surface would soon become a mass of flame. It is because of this capacity of the oxygen to cause things to burn that it becomes so useful in the system. It causes oxidation of all the tissues, thus supporting all the activities and burning or consuming all the refuse material.
Air becomes impure by being repeatedly breathed, or by stagnating in unventilated places. Sunshine is the greatest disinfectant for the atmosphere. One living in a tropical desert can readily breathe a sterilized atmosphere because of the direct and continued burning rays of the sun. In cities or improperly constructed houses where there are many places beneath and around the buildings where the sun never shines, and currents of air can not circulate, we have fruitful sources for the development of germs which contaminate the atmosphere.
There is no atmosphere in inhabited countries that is perfectly free from germs. To find this condition we should have to go to a very large desert, to the middle of the ocean, or to the tops of very high mountains. The ordinary impurities, however, which are present in the atmosphere, need not be detrimental to mankind if proper conditions are maintained in and around buildings, and if persons breathe properly, keeping the atmosphere as pure as possible by good ventilation.
Changes which take place in the atmosphere when breathed, render it unfit to be rebreathed except under conditions of perfect ventilation. One-fifth of the atmosphere that comes into the lungs is oxygen; one-fourth of this amount of oxygen in each respiration is absorbed by the blood; hence, it returns that much impoverished, also accompanied by a similar volume of carbonic acid gas and other impurities which are the poisonous elements from respiration. In this way the air is rapidly contaminated. The normal atmosphere contains three or four parts to 10,000 parts of carbonic acid gas in places that are well ventilated. The proportion is much larger when the air is more or less musty.
Respiration robs the atmosphere of about twenty per cent of its volume of oxygen and throws back into it even a larger per cent of carbonic acid gas. These changes in the atmosphere would naturally render it unfit for the support of human life. This condition arises when a number are huddled together in closed or poorly ventilated places.
Nature has provisions whereby these detrimental changes in the air are reversed. She has in the vegetable kingdom all forms of plant life growing, which get their food from this atmospheric substance which is so detrimental to man. Carbonic acid gas is food for the trees and flowers. They eat it, throw the oxygen back into the air in its pure state, and incorporate the carbon into their developing structure. Thus the fruit of the plant becomes the food of man; and the liberated oxygen again renders pure his atmosphere to be again appropriated by the tissues, undergo combustion, give warmth and energy to the body, and be once more thrown off as carbonic acid gas, become purified, and return through the life-giving cycle.
From the changes which take place in the atmosphere by the presence of a large number of people, the unhealthy conditions, and the necessary accumulation of dust, we would naturally conclude that the atmosphere in the city must become impoverished; but nature has no faults in way of arrangement for the support of human life, even in cities. The wind and atmospheric currents which are ever present, are constantly changing the atmospheric conditions in every locality. The pure atmosphere of the mountain forest may in one hour be carried to the heart of the greatest city of the world, and the same current may carry the air which was there at the beginning of the hour over the ocean-wave. Hence we can see the wisdom of an all-designing Creator in every condition and force in the world that pertains to human welfare.
